- Untuk mendaftar periksa ke dr. Terawan langsung aja ke klinik 24 jam yg terletak di pavilun kartika RSPAD. Kalaupun dr. Terawan tidak ada/sibuk(berhubung beliau sekarang adalah direktur RSPAD) ada dokter lain sebagai team yg semua insya Allah kompeten dlm hal DSA. Bawa hasil MRI atau Ct scan kalau ada.
- Blog ini untuk menjelaskan bagaimana untuk mendaftar terapi DSA di RSPAD. This blog will explain how to register this DSA therapy in RSPAD (berdasarkan pengalaman ayah mertua yang terkena stroke) Kronologi, ayah mertua mengalami kebas di kaki kanan di Minggu sore.
- RSPAD Gatot Soebroto di Era Orde Baru (1966 - 1998) Di era orde baru, RSPAD Gatot Soebroto memulai mengadakan pengembangan secara signifikan, baik pengembangan fisik khususnya sarana prasarana, organisasi dan sumber daya manusia. Dibidang pelayanan kesehatan RSPAD memasuki era tehnologi tinggi.
- Saat ini Unit Gizi RSPAD Gatot Soebroto Ditkesad dalam upaya proses perubahan menjadi Instalasi, yang nantinya dijabat oleh seorang Militer berpangkat Kolonel, mengingat besarnya beban tugas pelayanan gizi di RSPAD Gatot Soebroto Ditkesad sebagai Rumah Sakit Tingkat I dan sebagai Rumah Sakit rujukan tertinggi di jajaran TNI AD.RSPAD GS Ditkesad ...
- Pada ulang tahun RSPAD ke 45 tahun 1995, diterbitkan buku kenangan 45 tahun Perjalanan Pengabdian RSPAD Gatot Soebroto. Brigjen TNI Dr.Richard Paul mendapat promosi jabatan menjadi Kapusrehabcat Dep.Hankam dan menyerahkan tongkat kepemimpinan RSPAD kepada Kolonel CKM Dr. SUYAKA SUGANDA, Sp.OG pada tanggal 4 April 1997.
- kabar burung namanya juga kabar burung kebenaranya masih di ragukan,konon menurut berita dari mulut ke mulut bahwa lapangan tenis rspad dan sekitarnya akan di bongkar untuk di jadikan suatu pembangunan,konon keputusan ini sudah bulat dan tidak bisa di ganggu gugat kembali.
- Dengan ini diberitahukan kepada seluruh alumni Akbid RSPAD Gatot Soebroto yang sudah berkerja. Diharapkan mengirimkan surat keterangan kerja dari Institusi / tempat kerja saudari untuk keperluan Akreditasi Kampus.
- Disamping fungsi & tugas pokok sebagai penyelanggara makanan,Unit Gizi juga turut berperan dalam suksesnya Akreditasi Internasional (JCI) yg diselanggarakan RSPAD GS Ditkesad tahun 2013. Juara I lomba Karya Tulis Ilmiah dalam rangka HUT RSPAD ke-66, tahun 2013. Juara I lomba Poster Ilmiah dalam rangka HUT RSPAD ke-66, tahun 2013. 2012
- * RS Gatot Soebroto - RSPAD Telp. : 376102, 3441008 ... Arsip Blog. Juni (4) Mei (28) LINK TEMANS. Ailments. blog jamsostek. Indonesian Exotic Islands.
Islamic Faisal Hospital Royal
Senin, 23 September 2019
dr. Terawan , The Rising Star Radiologi Intervensi di Indonesia.
Minggu, 04 Maret 2018
RSUD
RSUD SUNAN KALIJAGA - rsudsuka.blogspot.co.id
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Posyandu
POSYANDU BALITA - kesmas-ode.blogspot.co.id
kesmas-ode.blogspot.co.id/2012/11/posyandu-balita.htmlSalinansyakira-blog: TENTANG POSYANDU
syakira-blog.blogspot.co.id/2009/01/tentang-posyandu.htmlSalinanA. Pengertian Posyandu Adalah suatu forum komunikasi, alih tehnologi dan pelayanan kesehatan masyarakat yang mempunyai nilai strategis untuk pengembangan sumber daya ...NeNeNg Amas Blog: POSYANDU (Pos Pelayanan Terpadu)
smartsroom.blogspot.co.id/2011/07/posyandu.htmlSalinanMakalah dan Artikel Posyandu | Your Blog Description
makalahposyandu.blogspot.co.idSalinanAtas dasar 8 indikator yang digunakan sebagai penyaring atau penentu tingkat kemandirian Posyandu, Posyandu dapat digolongkan menjadi 4 tingkatan.Novithasari Anggraini: Makalah Posyandu - novithasari03.blogspot...
novithasari03.blogspot.co.id/2013/10/makalah-posyandu.htmlSalinanTujuan didirikannya Posyandu adalah dalam upanya untuk menurunkan angka kematian bayi dan anak balita, angka kelahiran agar terwujud keluarga kecil bahagia dan ...POSYANDU ~ RW 08 DESA WANGISAGARA - rw08wangisagara.blogspot...
rw08wangisagara.blogspot.co.id/2015/02/posyandu.htmlSalinanposyandu ini bisa dijelaskan merupakan salah satu bentuk Upaya Kesehatan Bersumber Daya Masyarakat (BUKM) yang dikelola dan diselenggarakan dari, oleh, untuk dan ...- bidanshop.blogspot.co.id
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Zambia
Livingstone General Hospital, Livingstone, Zambia. – TCD MOVE...
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Find Hospitals, Medical Centre & Clinics in Zambia and get directions and maps for local businesses in Africa. List of best Hospitals, Medical Centre & Clinics in ...Zimba Mission Hospital, Zimba, Zambia - Samaritan's Purse
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Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Sahel is the transitional zone in between the Sahara and the tropical savanna of the Sudan region and farther south the forest-savanna mosaic of tropical Africa.
Since probably 3500 BCE,[4][5] the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan, though the Nile was blocked by the river's cataracts. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with a "wet Sahara" phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.[6]
The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority; a vestige of colonialism, which some say, divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity.[7][8]
Contents
- 1 Etymology
- 2 Climate zones and ecoregions
- 3 History
- 4 Demographics
- 5 Economy
- 6 Education
- 7 Health care
- 8 Religion
- 9 Culture
- 10 Music
- 11 Art
- 12 Cuisine
- 13 Clothing
- 14 Sports
- 15 Tourism
- 16 List of countries and regional organization
- 17 See also
- 18 Notes
- 19 References
- 20 Further reading
- 21 External links
Etymology
Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as-sûdân ("Land of the Blacks") for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and Central Africa[10]), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan.[11] Its equivalent in Southeast Africa was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks"), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region.[9][11]
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa.[9] In modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al-Habash or Abyssinia,[12] which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of the Habesha.[13] In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al-Barbar ("Land of the Berbers"), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi, as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively.[9][14][15][16]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the populations south of the Sahara were divided into three broad ancestral groups: Hamites and Semites in the Horn of Africa and Sahel related to those in North Africa, who spoke languages belonging to the Afroasiatic family; Negroes in most of the rest of the subcontinent (hence, the former toponym Black Africa for Tropical Africa[17]), who spoke languages belonging to the Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan families; and Khoisan in Southern Africa, who spoke languages belonging to the Khoisan family.[18]
Climate zones and ecoregions
Further information: Afrotropic ecozone; Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands; and List of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions
- The Sahel shoots across all of Africa at a latitude of about 10° to 15° N. Countries that include parts of the Sahara Desert proper in their northern territories and parts of the Sahel in their southern region include Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad and Sudan. The Sahel has a hot semi-arid climate.
- South of the Sahel, there is a belt of savanna, (Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, Northern Congolese forest-savanna mosaic) widening to include most of South Sudan and Ethiopia in the east (East Sudanese savanna).
- The Horn of Africa globally includes hot desert climate along the coast but hot semi-arid climate can be found much more in the interior, contrasting with savannah and moist broadleaf forests in the interior of Ethiopia.
- Tropical Africa encompasses tropical rainforest stretching along the southern coast of West Africa and across most of Central Africa (the Congo) west of the African Great Lakes
- The Eastern Miombo woodlands are an ecoregion of Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique.
- The Serengeti ecosystem is located in northwestern Tanzania and extends to southwestern Kenya.
- The Kalahari Basin includes the Kalahari Desert surrounded by a belt of semi-desert.
- The Bushveld is a tropical savanna ecoregion of Southern Africa.
- The Karoo is a semi-desert in western South Africa.
History
Main article: History of AfricaPrehistory
By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and central Africa. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis probably did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan.[20]
Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonize the entire Old World, and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus, a H. habilis descendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. erectus species.[21]
The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000 years ago. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.[20][22][23]
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel,[24] the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans-saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment.[25][26][27] It is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade.[28]
Central Africa
Main article: Central Africa
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, and Wadai.[33]
Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt.[34]
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like that of the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.[34]
The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza-Kongo, under the king title, Manikongo.[34] Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda, Bemba, Burundi, Rwanda, and the Kingdom of Ndongo.
Horn of Africa
Main article: Horn of Africa § HistoryFurther information: History of Ethiopia, History of Somalia, History of Eritrea, History of Djibouti, and Ethiopian historiography
In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building,[36] the Sultanate of Adal, whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire,[37] and the Geledi Sultanate, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf.[38] In the late 19th century after the Berlin conference had ended, European empires sailed with their armies to the Horn of Africa. The imperial armies in Somalia alarmed the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars known as the Somaliland Campaign.
Southern Africa
Main article: History of Southern AfricaFurther information: Kingdom of Mutapa
Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe.
In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, ostensibly to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French but also to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1806.
The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now KwaZulu-Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the Anglo-Zulu War.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, most Sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.[39]
Southeast Africa
Further information: Southeast AfricaAccording to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans, the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa.[40] During the first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu-speaking peoples moved into the region, and the latter now account for three-quarters of Kenya's population.
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias[43] referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51] ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania.[52][53] These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.[54]
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda[55] and Karagwe[55] kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Sudan
Further information: History of Sudan
Nubia at her greatest phase is considered Sub-Saharan Africa's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere in the world.[57]
Western Africa
Main article: History of West AfricaFurther information: Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Songhay Empire, Kingdom of Benin, and Kingdom of Nri
The Djenné-Djenno city-state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the Ghana Empire.
The Nok culture is known from a type of terracotta figure found in Nigeria, dating to between 500 BCE and 200 CE.
There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans-Saharan trade, including the Ghana Empire and the Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire.[58] They built stone structures like in Tichit, but mainly constructed in adobe. The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.
In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria, with Great Britain, France and Portugal shipping the majority of the slaves.[61] Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time.
By 1960, most of the region achieved independence from colonial rule.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of AfricaPopulation
Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles.[64] More than 40% of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan, with the exception of South Africa.[65]
Country Population Area (km2) Literacy (M/F)[66] GDP per Capita[66] Trans (Rank/Score)[67] Life (Exp.)[66] HDI EODBR/SAB[68] PFI (RANK/MARK) Angola 18,498,000 1,246,700 82.9%/54.2% 6000 168/2 42.4 0.486 172/171 132/58,43 Burundi 8,988,091 27,830 67.3%/52.2% 101 168/1.8 49 0.316 176/130 103/29,00 Democratic Republic of the Congo 68,692,542 2,345,410 80.9%/54.1% 91 162/11.9 46.1 0.286 182/152 146/53,50 Cameroon 18,879,301 475,440 77%/59.8% 687 146/2.2 50.3 0.482 171/174 109/30,50 Central African Republic 4,511,488 622,984 64.8%/33.5% 22 158/2.8 44.4 0.343 183/159 80/17,75 Chad 10,329,208 1,284,000 40.8%/12.8% 266 175/1.6 50.6 0.328 178/182 132/44,50 Republic of the Congo 3,700,000 342,000 90.5%/ 79.0% 1,145 162/1.9 54.8 0.533 N/A 116/34,25 Equatorial Guinea 633,441 28,051 93.4%/80.3% 7,470 168/1.8 51.1 0.537 170/178 158/65,50 Gabon 1,514,993 267,667 88.5%/79.7% 4,263 106/2.9 56.7 0.674 158/152 129/43,50 Kenya 39,002,772 582,650 77.7%/70.2 976 146/2.2 57.8 0.519 95/124 96/25,00 Nigeria 174,507,539 923,768 84.4%/72.7%[69] 6,204 136/27 57 0.504 131/120 112/34.24 Rwanda 10,473,282 26,338 71.4%/59.8% 263 89/3.3 46.8 0.429 67/11 157/64,67 São Tomé and Príncipe 212,679 1,001 92.2%/77.9% N/A 111/2.8 65.2 0.509 180/140 NA Tanzania 44,928,923 945,087 77.5%/62.2% 339 126/2.6 51.9 0.466 131/120 NA/15,50 Uganda 32,369,558 236,040 76.8%/57.7 274 130/2.5 50.7 0.446 112/129 86/21,50 Sudan 31,894,000 1,886,068 79.6%/60.8% 2,500[70] 176/1.5 62.57[71] 0.408 154/118 148/54,00 South Sudan 8,260,490 619,745 Djibouti 516,055 23,000 N/A 817 111/2.8 54.5 0.430 163/177 110/31,00 Eritrea 5,647,168 121,320 N/A 160 126/2.6 57.3 0.349 175/181 175/115,50 Ethiopia 85,237,338 1,127,127 50%/28.8% 161 120/2.7 52.5 0.363 107/93 140/49,00 Somalia 9,832,017 637,657 N/A N/A 180/1.1 47.7 N/A N/A 164/77,50 Botswana 1,990,876 600,370 80.4%/81.8% 8,532 37/5.6 49.8 0.633 45/83 62/15,50 Comoros 752,438 2,170 N/A 382 143/2.3 63.2 0.433 162/168 82/19,00 Lesotho 2,130,819 30,355 73.7%/90.3% 528 89/3.3 42.9 0.450 130/131 99/27,50 Madagascar 19,625,000 587,041 76.5%/65.3% 238 99/3.0 59 0.480 134/12 134/45,83 Malawi 14,268,711 118,480 N/A 145 89/3.3 47.6 0.400 132/128 62/15,50 Mauritius 1,284,264 2,040 88.2%/80.5% 4,522 42/5.4 73.2 0.728 17/10 51/14,00 Mozambique 21,669,278 801,590 N/A 330 130/2.5 42.5 0.322 135/96 82/19,00 Namibia 2,108,665 825,418 86.8%/83.6% 2166 56/4.5 52.5 0.625 66/123 35/9,00 Seychelles 87,476 455 91.4%/92.3% 7,005 54/4.8 72.2 0.773 111/81 72/16,00 South Africa 52,981,991 1,219,912 N/A 3,562 55/4.7 50.7 0.619 34/67 33/8,50 Swaziland 1,123,913 17,363 80.9%/78.3% 1,297 79/3.6 40.8 0.522 115/158 144/52,50 Zambia 11,862,740 752,614 N/A 371 99/3.0 41.7 0.430 90/94 97/26,75 Zimbabwe 11,392,629 390,580 92.7%/86.2% N/A 146/2.2 42.7 0.376 159/155 136/46,50 Benin 8,791,832 112,620 47.9%/42.3% 323 106/2.9 56.2 0.427 172/155 97/26,75 Mali 12,666,987 1,240,000 32.7%/15.9% 290 111/2.8 53.8 0.359 156/139 38/8,00 Burkina Faso 15,730,977 274,200 25.3% 1,360 79/3.6 51 0.331 150/116 N/A Cape Verde 499,000 322,462 Ivory Coast 20,617,068 322,463 Gambia 1,782,893 11,295 Ghana 24,200,000 238,535 Guinea 10,057,975 245,857 Guinea-Bissau 1,647,000 36,125 Liberia 4,128,572 111,369 Mauritania 3,359,185 1,030,700 Niger 17,129,076 1,267,000 Senegal 12,855,153 196,712 Sierra Leone 6,190,280 71,740 Togo 7,154,237 56,785
Languages and ethnic groups
Further information: Languages of Africa and List of African ethnic groups
Afroasiatic
With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate) of Mesopotamia, Afro-Asiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of north eastern Syria.[73]
The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger).[74][75] The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa.[76] Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).[77]
Khoisan
The several families lumped under the term Khoi-San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania, though some, such as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion.[78] In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza.
Niger–Congo
The Niger–Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains.[79] The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal such as Yoruba, and Igbo, However, others such as Fulani and Wolof are not. A major branch of Niger–Congo languages is the Bantu family, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family put together. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San, Pygmy, and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic, Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.
Nilo-Saharan
The Nilo-Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur, Masalit, Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among the Songhai, Zarma and Kanuri. The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family.
Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions:
- Central Africa
- Horn of Africa
- Southeast Africa
- Southern Africa
- West Africa
Economy
Main article: Economy of Africa
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. Between 2011 and 2015, the economic growth rate of the average nation in Africa is expected to surpass that of the average nation in Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world.[114] According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013, with a rate of 5.2% forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.[115]
Energy and power
Main article: Mineral industry of AfricaOil production by country
(with other key actors of African or oil economy)Rank Area bb/day Year Like... _ W: World 85540000 2007 est. 01 E: Russia 9980000 2007 est. 02 Ar: Saudi Arb 9200000 2008 est. 04 As: Libya 4725000 2008 est. Iran 10 Af: Nigeria/Africa 2352000 2011 est. Norway 15 Af: Algeria 2173000 2007 est. 16 Af: Angola 1910000 2008 est. 17 Af: Egypt 1845000 2007 est. 27 Af: Tunisia 664000 2007 est. Australia 31 Af: Sudan 466100 2007 est. Ecuador 33 Af: Eq.Guinea 368500 2007 est. Vietnam 38 Af: DR Congo 261000 2008 est. 39 Af: Gabon 243900 2007 est. 40 Af: Sth Africa 199100 2007 est. 45 Af: Chad 156000 2008 est. Germany 53 Af: Cameroon 87400 2008 est. France 56 E: France 71400 2007 60 Af: Ivory Coast 54400 2008 est. _ Af: Africa 10780400 2011 Russia Source: CIA.gov, World Facts Book > Oil exporters.
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to build additional hydropower generation capacity of at least 20,165 MW by 2014. The region has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7% has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.[117]
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million.[when?] Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.[118]
With electrification numbers, Sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar photovoltaic electrical potential.[119] Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential.[120] China is promising to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China-Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister Xu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.[121]
The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent-wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and/or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, involve at least one country in Sub-Saharan Africa.[117]
Media
Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa.[122] Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries – Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia – still have a penetration of less than 10%. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive.[123][124] Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.[125]
Television is the second major source of information.[122] Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight percent have television, a total of 62 million. But those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.[126]
Infrastructure
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year).[117] Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors.[117] Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors.[117] In Sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.[117] In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in ICT and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure.[117] Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending.[117] The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments.[117] External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.[117]
Oil and minerals
By 2015, it is estimated that 25% of North American oil will be from Sub-Saharan Africa, ahead of the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10% of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in Sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, ⅓ are in Sub-Saharan Africa.[138]
Agriculture
Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included sorghum, castor beans, coffee, cotton[140] okra, black-eyed peas, watermelon, gourd, and pearl millet. Other domesticated crops included teff, enset, African rice, yams, kola nuts, oil palm, and raffia palm.[139][141]
Domesticated animals include the guinea fowl and the donkey.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.[72]
The OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit.[144] There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year.[145] Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in Sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries.[127][128] Early in 2009, George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in Sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.[146]
Education
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3% of their GDP on science and technology on in 2007. This represents an increase from US$1.8 billion in 2002 to US$2.8 billion in 2007, a 50% increase in spending.[149][150]
Health care
Further information: HIV/AIDS in Africa
In 2011, Sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69% of all people living with HIV/AIDS worldwide.[154] In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV/AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation's outreach programs.[155] According to a 2013 special report issued by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retroviral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone.[156][157]:15 The number of AIDS-related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 percent less than the number in 2005.[158] The number of new HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 percent less than the number in 2001.[158]
National health systems vary between countries. In Ghana, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the Ministry of Health and Ghana Health Services. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors-pooled Health Fund.[165]
Religion
Further information: Religion in Africa, Christianity in Africa, Islam in Africa, Hinduism in Africa, and African traditional religion
Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among Niger–Congo-speakers is a belief in a creator God; ancestor spirits; territorial spirits; evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits; priest of territorial spirits. New world religions such as Santería, Vodun, and Candomblé, would be derived from this world view. Among Nilo-Saharan speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among Afro-Asiatic-speakers is henotheism, the belief in one's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic Abrahamic religion of Judaism is comparable to the latter world view.[167] San religion is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance-dance; trance-healers.[168]
Traditional religions in Sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. Cosmology and ontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming).[169]
- West Africa
- Akan mythology
- Ashanti mythology (Ghana)
- Dahomey (Fon) mythology
- Efik mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
- Igbo mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
- Serer religion and Serer creation myth (Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania)
- Yoruba mythology (Nigeria, Benin)
- Central Africa
- Dinka mythology (South Sudan)
- Lotuko mythology (South Sudan)
- Bushongo mythology (Congo)
- Bambuti (Pygmy) mythology (Congo)
- Lugbara mythology (Congo)
- Southeast Africa
- Akamba mythology (eastern Kenya)
- Masai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania)
- Southern Africa
- Khoisan religion
- Lozi mythology (Zambia)
- Tumbuka mythology (Malawi)
- Zulu mythology (South Africa)
Culture
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities and villages, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far out weigh an individual needs and achievements. Basically, an individual's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. “An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister”. This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. “Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions." Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally “men do the heavy work of clearing and plowing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family’s food”. Despite their work in the fields women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. “When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two”.[171]
Music
Further information: Music of Africa and African popular music
But Sub-Saharan music involves a lot of music with strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern sahel and along the nile, among the Nilo-Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the Afro-Asiatics, we see extensive use of string instruments. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the San is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.[173]
Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influence by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are Mbalax in Senegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Ivory Coast, Makossa in Cameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola, and Mbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.
Art
Further information: African art
Although Sub-Saharan African art is very diverse there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for sculpture. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function, utilitarian. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of fractals or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry], Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry." William Fagg, the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D’Arcy Thompson. Lastly, Sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerated the head of a sculpture in relations to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom. The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of modernist artist like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Jacques Lipchitz.[177][178]
Cuisine
Further information: African cuisine
West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include fufu, kenkey, couscous, garri, foutou, and banku. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers, yams, cocoyams, and cassava. Grains include millet, sorghum, and rice, usually in the sahel, are incorporated. Oils include palm oil and shea butter(sahel). One finds recipes that mixes fish and meat. Beverages are palm wine(sweet or sour) and millet beer. Roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing are all cooking techniques.
In the Horn of Africa, pork and non-fish seafood is avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians. Maize (corn) is a major staple. Cornmeal is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names. Teff is used to make injera or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include enset, noog, lentils, rice, banana, leafy greens, chiles, peppers, coconut milk and tomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), chai tea, fermented beer from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting and marinating.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising, sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include braai (barbecue meat), sadza, bogobe, pap (fermented cornmeal), milk products (buttermilk, yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and cabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), milk, chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay community can be seen its use of curries, sambals, pickled fish, fish stews, chutney, and samosa. European influences can be seen in cuisines like biltong (dried beef strips), potjies (stews of maize, onions, tomatoes), French wines, and crueler or koeksister (sugar syrup cookie).
Clothing
Further information: Clothing in Africa
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and kuta are types of Ethiopian clothing. Kanga are Swahili cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. Kitenges are similar to kangas and kikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Sudan are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In Malawi, Namibia and Zambia, kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth,[179] an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis).[180] On Madagascar a type of draped cloth called lamba is worn.
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth[181] from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Sports
Boxing is also a popular sport. Battling Siki the first world champion to come out of Sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as Dick Tiger, Hogan Bassey, Gerrie Coetzee, Samuel Peter, Azumah Nelson and Jake Matlala.
Cricket has a following. The African Cricket Association is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 the Cricket World Cup was held in South Africa, first time it was held in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the years, Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many notable long-distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the marathon.[185] Famous runners include Haile Gebrselassie, Kenenisa Bekele, Paul Tergat, and John Cheruiyot Korir.[186]
Tourism
The development of tourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania, and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries.[187] Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.[188]
List of countries and regional organization
Central Africa
- South Sudan[97][195] cap. Juba cur. Sudanese pound (SDG) lang. English
- Angola (also in SADC) cap. Luanda cur. Angolan kwanza (Kz) lang. Portuguese
- Burundi (also in EAC) cap. Bujumbura cur. Burundian franc (FBu) lang. French
- Democratic Republic of the Congo (also in SADC) cap. Kinshasa cur. Congolese franc (FC) lang. Kurundi, French
- Rwanda (also in EAC) cap. Kigali cur. Rwandan franc (RF) lang. Kinyarwanda, French, English
- São Tomé and Príncipe cap. São Tomé cur. São Tomé and Príncipe dobra (Db) lang. Portuguese
- Cameroon cap. Yaoundé cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. English, French
- Central African Republic cap. Bangui cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. Sango, French
- Chad cap. N'Djamena cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French, Arabic
- Republic of the Congo cap. Brazzaville cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French
- Equatorial Guinea cap. Malabo cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. Spanish, French
- Gabon cap. Libreville cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French
East Africa
Horn of Africa
- Djibouti cap. Djibouti cur. Djiboutian franc (Fdj) lang. Arabic, French
- Eritrea cap. Asmara cur. Eritrean nakfa (Nfk) 'lang.' Tigrinya, Arabic, Italian, English
- Ethiopia cap. Addis Ababa cur. Ethiopian birr (Br) lang. Amharic
- Somalia cap. Mogadishu cur. Somali shilling (So.Sh) lang. Somali, Arabic
Southeast Africa
- EAC
- Burundi (also in ECCAS) cap. Bujumbura cur. Burundian franc (FBu) lang. Kirundi, French
- Kenya cap. Nairobi cur. Kenyan shilling (KSh) lang. Swahili, English
- Rwanda (also in ECCAS) cap. Kigali cur. Rwandan franc (RF) lang. Kinyarwanda, French, English
- Tanzania (also in SADC) cap. Dodoma cur. Tanzanian shilling (x/y) lang. Swahili, English
- Uganda cap. Kampala cur. Ugandan shilling (USh) lang. Swahili, English
Southern Africa
- SADC (Southern African Development Community)
- Angola (also in ECCAS) cap. Luanda cur. Angolan kwanza (Kz) lang. Portuguese
- Botswana cap. Gaborone cur. Botswana pula (P) lang. Tswana, English
- Comoros cap. Moroni cur. Comorian franc (CF) lang. Comorian, Arabic, French
- Lesotho cap. Maseru cur. Lesotho loti (L)(M) lang. Sesotho, English
- Madagascar cap. Antananarivo cur. Malagasy ariary (MGA) lang. Malagasy, French
- Malawi cap. Lilongwe cur. Malawian kwacha (MK) lang. English
- Mauritius cap. Port Louis cur. Mauritian rupee (R) lang. English
- Mozambique cap. Maputo cur. Mozambican metical (MTn) lang. Portuguese
- Namibia cap. Windhoek cur. Namibian dollar (N$) lang. English
- Seychelles cap. Victoria cur. Seychellois rupee (SR)(SRe) lang. Seychellois Creole, English, French
- South Africa cap. Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Pretoria cur. South African rand (R) lang. 11 official languages
- Swaziland cap. Mbabane cur. Swazi lilangeni (L)(E) lang. SiSwati, English
- Zambia cap. Lusaka cur. Zambian kwacha (ZK) lang. English
- Zimbabwe cap. Harare cur. Zimbabwean dollar ($) lang. English
Sudan
Depending on classification Sudan is often not considered part of Sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa.
- Sudan cap. Khartoum cur. Sudanese pound (SDG) lang. Arabic and English
West Africa
- Mauritania cap. Nouakchott cur. Mauritanian ouguiya (UM)(sometimes, like Sudan, considered part of North Africa)
- Ivory Coast cap. Abidjan, Yamoussoukro cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- The Gambia cap. Banjul cur. Gambian dalasi (D)
- Ghana 'cap. Accra cur. Ghanaian cedi (GH₵)
- Guinea cap. Conakry cur. Guinean franc (FG)
- Liberia cap. Monrovia cur. Liberian dollar (L$)
- Nigeria cap. Abuja cur. Nigerian naira (N)
- Sierra Leone cap. Freetown cur. Sierra Leonean leone (Le)
- Benin cap. Porto-Novo cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Burkina Faso cap. Ouagadougou cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Ivory Coast cap. Abidjan, Yamoussoukro cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Guinea-Bissau cap. Bissau cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Mali cap. Bamako cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Niger cap. Niamey cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Senegal cap. Dakar cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Togo cap. Lomé cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
See also
Notes
- "Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings". United Nations Statistics Division. 11 February 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013. "The designation sub-Saharan Africa is commonly used to indicate all of Africa except northern Africa, with the Sudan included in sub-Saharan Africa."
- "Political definition of "Major regions", according to the UN". Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
- League of Arab States
"Arab States". UNESCO.
Infosamak. "Centre for Marketing, Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Arab Region". Infosamak.
Halim Barakat, The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, (University of California Press: 1993), p. 80
Khair El-Din Haseeb et al., The Future of the Arab Nation: Challenges and Options, 1 edition (Routledge: 1991), p. 54
John Markakis, Resource conflict in the Horn of Africa, (Sage: 1998), p. 39
Ḥagai Erlikh, The struggle over Eritrea, 1962–1978: war and revolution in the Horn of Africa, (Hoover Institution Press: 1983), p. 59
Randall Fegley, Eritrea, (Clio Press: 1995), p. mxxxviii
Michael Frishkopf, Music and Media in the Arab World, (American University in Cairo Press: 2010), p. 61
- "Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started by Changes in Earth's Orbit, Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks", Science Daily.
- Claussen,
Mark; Kubatzki, Claudia; Brovkin, Victor; Ganopolski, Andrey;
Hoelzmann, Philipp; Pachur, Hans-Joachim (1999). "Simulation of an
Abrupt Change in Saharan Vegetation in the Mid-Holocene". Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (14): 2037–40. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.2037C. doi:10.1029/1999GL900494.
"Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks". Science Daily. Science Daily. 12 July 1999.
- van Zinderen-Bakker E. M. (14 April 1962). "A Late-Glacial and Post-Glacial Climatic Correlation between East Africa and Europe". Nature. 194 (4824): 201–03. Bibcode:1962Natur.194..201V. doi:10.1038/194201a0.
- Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe (2 May 2014). "What exactly does 'sub-Sahara Africa' mean?". Pambazuka News.
- "Contemptuousness Of A "Sub-Saharan Africa" By Chika Onyeani". Africannewsworld. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-29.
- Raunig, Walter (2005). Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internationalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 130. ISBN 3-447-05175-2.
ancient Arabic geography had quite a fixed pattern in listing the countries from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean: These are al-Misr (Egypt) – al-Muqurra (or other designations for Nubian kingdoms) – al-Habasha (Abyssinia) – Barbara (Berber, i.e. the Somali coast) – Zanj (Azania, i.e. the country of the "blacks"). Correspondingly almost all these terms (or as I believe: all of them!) also appear in ancient and medieval Chinese geography
- International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131,
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